[Cognitive reserve, depression and social support. Analysis of 206 older adults]. / Funcionamiento cognitivo en adultos mayores: rol de la reserva cognitiva, apoyo social y depresión.

BACKGROUND: Cognitive reserve (CR) is a protective factor in aging. Depression and perceived social support are associated with cognitive performance in older adults. However, their role in the relationship between CR and cognitive functioning is less clear. AIM: To determine the relationship between CR and cognitive functioning and whether this relationship is mediated by depression and moderated by social support. MATERIAL AND METHODS: CR, depression, perceived social support, and cognitive functioning scales were applied to a convenience sample of 206 older adults, aged 69 ± 1 years (77% women). Structural equation analysis and moderate mediation analysis were performed. RESULTS: There was a direct effect of CR in cognitive functioning (ß = 0.223, p = 0.005), which was not mediated by depression (ß = 0.040, p = 0.096). High CR scores were associated with lower depression scores (ß = -0.203, p = 0.002). Higher depression scores were associated with worse cognitive functioning (ß = -0.168, p = 0.040). The effect of CR on depression was moderated by social support (ß = -0.161, p = 0.032) controlling for income and age. CONCLUSIONS: The relationship between CR and cognition in older adults allows an early assessment of cognitive dysfunction risk. Depression is an independent risk factor for cognitive functioning. Social support protects individuals with high CR from developing depression.

Funcionamiento cognitivo en adultos mayores: rol de la reserva cognitiva, apoyo social y depresión / Cognitive reserve, depression and social support. Analysis of 206 older adults

Background: Cognitive reserve (CR) is a protective factor in aging. Depression and perceived social support are associated with cognitive performance in older adults. However, their role in the relationship between CR and cognitive functioning is less clear. Aim: To determine the relationship between CR and cognitive functioning and whether this relationship is mediated by depression and moderated by social support. Material and Methods: CR, depression, perceived social support, and cognitive functioning scales were applied to a convenience sample of 206 older adults, aged 69 ± 1 years (77% women). Structural equation analysis and moderate mediation analysis were performed. Results: There was a direct effect of CR in cognitive functioning (β = 0.223, p = 0.005), which was not mediated by depression (β = 0.040, p = 0.096). High CR scores were associated with lower depression scores (β = −0.203, p = 0.002). Higher depression scores were associated with worse cognitive functioning (β = −0.168, p = 0.040). The effect of CR on depression was moderated by social support (β = −0.161, p = 0.032) controlling for income and age. Conclusions: The relationship between CR and cognition in older adults allows an early assessment of cognitive dysfunction risk. Depression is an independent risk factor for cognitive functioning. Social support protects individuals with high CR from developing depression.

Aprendizaje implícito en usuarios intensivos de videojuegos / Aprendizado implícito em usuários intensivos de videogames / Implicit learning in intensive videogame players

El presente estudio buscó relacionar la evidencia acumulada sobre aprendizaje implícito y el potencial impacto de los videojuegos como vehiculo de tal aprendizaje. Específicamente, se buscó averiguar si la experiencia intensa y prolongada con videojuegos generaba ventajas por sobre la ausencia de tal experiencia, en situaciones donde existían las condiciones para aprender de manera implícita. El estudio comparó el desempeño de jugadores intensivos (n=18), jugadores moderados (n=15), y no-jugadores (n=15), en dos tareas experimentales especialmente diseñadas para posibilitar el aprendizaje implícito: Una tarea de Tiempo de Reacción Serial (TRS); y una tarea de Inducción de Respuestas Direccionales (IRD). Los resultados con ambas tareas, aunque poco robustos, muestran que los jugadores intensivos, y también los moderados, presentan facilitación para captar las regularidades implícitas, o subliminalmente presentes, en estas tareas. Estos resultados se discuten en relación a la literatura sobre aprendizaje implícito y al potencial de los videojuegos como vehiculo de aprendizaje.(AU)

This study aimed to relate the available evidence on implicit learning and the potential role of videogames as a vehicle for such learning. Specifically, it was intended to inquire whether having an intense and long experience with videogames would grant some advantage over the absence of such experience, in situations where appropriate conditions for implicit learning were presented. Hence, the study compared the performance of intensive players (n=18), moderate players (n=15) and non-players (n=15), on two specially designed implicit learning tasks: The Serial Reaction Time (SRT) task, and the Directional Response Induction (DRI) task. Even though the results from both tasks are not robust, they showed that intensive, as well as moderate players, were favored for capturing the implicit (subliminal) regularities present in these tasks. These results are discussed in terms of recent developments in the implicit learning literature, as well as in terms of videogames potential to become learning tools.(AU)

O estudo em questão procurou relacionar a evidência acumulada sobre o aprendizado implícito e o potencial impacto que o videogame pode produzir como veículo de tal aprendizado. De forma mais específica, procurou-se averiguar se a experiência intensa e prolongada com videogames gerava vantagens sobre a ausência da mesma, em situações nas quais existiam as condições para aprender de forma implícita. O estudo comparou o desempenho de jogadores intensivos (n=18), jogadores moderados (n=15), e não-jogadores (n=15), em dois exercícios experimentais especialmente desenhados para possibilitar o aprendizado implícito: uma tarefa de Tempo de Reação Serial (TRS) e uma tarefa de Indução de Respostas Direcionadas (IRD). Os resultados de ambos exercícios, embora pouco robustos, mostram que os jogadores intensivos, assim como os moderados, apresentam facilidades para captar as regularidades implícitas, ou presentes de forma subliminar, nestes exercícios. Estes resultados são discutidos em relação à literatura disponível sobre o aprendizado implícito e o potencial do videogame como veículo de aprendizado.(AU)

Aprendizaje implícito en usuarios intensivos de videojuegos / Aprendizado implícito em usuários intensivos de videogames / Implicit learning in intensive videogame players

El presente estudio buscó relacionar la evidencia acumulada sobre aprendizaje implícito y el potencial impacto de los videojuegos como vehiculo de tal aprendizaje. Específicamente, se buscó averiguar si la experiencia intensa y prolongada con videojuegos generaba ventajas por sobre la ausencia de tal experiencia, en situaciones donde existían las condiciones para aprender de manera implícita. El estudio comparó el desempeño de jugadores intensivos (n=18), jugadores moderados (n=15), y no-jugadores (n=15), en dos tareas experimentales especialmente diseñadas para posibilitar el aprendizaje implícito: Una tarea de Tiempo de Reacción Serial (TRS); y una tarea de Inducción de Respuestas Direccionales (IRD). Los resultados con ambas tareas, aunque poco robustos, muestran que los jugadores intensivos, y también los moderados, presentan facilitación para captar las regularidades implícitas, o subliminalmente presentes, en estas tareas. Estos resultados se discuten en relación a la literatura sobre aprendizaje implícito y al potencial de los videojuegos como vehiculo de aprendizaje.

This study aimed to relate the available evidence on implicit learning and the potential role of videogames as a vehicle for such learning. Specifically, it was intended to inquire whether having an intense and long experience with videogames would grant some advantage over the absence of such experience, in situations where appropriate conditions for implicit learning were presented. Hence, the study compared the performance of intensive players (n=18), moderate players (n=15) and non-players (n=15), on two specially designed implicit learning tasks: The Serial Reaction Time (SRT) task, and the Directional Response Induction (DRI) task. Even though the results from both tasks are not robust, they showed that intensive, as well as moderate players, were favored for capturing the implicit (subliminal) regularities present in these tasks. These results are discussed in terms of recent developments in the implicit learning literature, as well as in terms of videogames potential to become learning tools.

O estudo em questão procurou relacionar a evidência acumulada sobre o aprendizado implícito e o potencial impacto que o videogame pode produzir como veículo de tal aprendizado. De forma mais específica, procurou-se averiguar se a experiência intensa e prolongada com videogames gerava vantagens sobre a ausência da mesma, em situações nas quais existiam as condições para aprender de forma implícita. O estudo comparou o desempenho de jogadores intensivos (n=18), jogadores moderados (n=15), e não-jogadores (n=15), em dois exercícios experimentais especialmente desenhados para possibilitar o aprendizado implícito: uma tarefa de Tempo de Reação Serial (TRS) e uma tarefa de Indução de Respostas Direcionadas (IRD). Os resultados de ambos exercícios, embora pouco robustos, mostram que os jogadores intensivos, assim como os moderados, apresentam facilidades para captar as regularidades implícitas, ou presentes de forma subliminar, nestes exercícios. Estes resultados são discutidos em relação à literatura disponível sobre o aprendizado implícito e o potencial do videogame como veículo de aprendizado.